CALL and Teaching article

Post-Script, Volume 3,1
Post-Script is published by the Faculty of Education at the University of Melbourne, Australia. It is a
refereed journal for graduate students, publishing research papers, articles and reviews. Post-Script
is at www.edfac.unimelb.edu.au/insight/pscript.shtml
ISSN 1444-383X Published July 2002 © Faculty of Education
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Julia Gong
ABSTRACT The introduction of computers in language classrooms has opened a new door to both
teachers and learners. Computers, accompanying software packages and networks can be used in a
number of ways to assist language learning. The computer environment is highly motivating and less
threatening psychologically. The emergence of the web broadens interaction to a great extent and
enables learners to be exposed to a real audience. However, compared with how computers are used
to enhance the learners’ writing skills, reading skills and listening skills, the application associated with
the improvement of the learners’ speaking skills is rather weak. Nevertheless, the potential of the
computer medium for the spoken language curriculum has been realized. Computer-Assisted
Language Learning (CALL), defined as ‘the search for and study of applications of the computer in
language teaching and learning’ (Levy 1997: 1), has been used in pronunciation training, speech
recognition and analysis, “voiced” dictionary, and as a stimulus to provide a speaking environment.
This essay will therefore discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the utilisation of computers in
teaching and learning second language speaking skills, the actual application of CALL so far, and
future trends, in the hope of drawing language teachers’ attention to the application of CALL in
teaching speaking skills and provide useful information based on existing literature.
INTRODUCTION
In the last decade, the use of computers has developed rapidly throughout the world.
For educational purposes, computers play a crucial role where they function as 'an
added tool or resource, as a model or a real-world phenomenon or system, and as a
training environment to prepare users for real-world tasks and experiences'
(Pennington 1995: 11). With respect to second/foreign language teaching and
learning, Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL), defined as ‘the search for
and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning’ (Levy
1997: 1), offers an unrivalled range of possibilities to provide learning experiences
that are impossible without a computer. In the past, language learning was restricted
by the six-sided classroom and many language learners did not have the opportunity
to interact with native speakers in a meaningful way. Nowadays, the CALL
environment becomes an ideal safe haven for learners to practise interaction. The
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Julia Gong The employment of CALL in teaching second/foreign
language speaking skills
computers, accompanying software packages and network have been used in a
number of ways to assist language learning.

APPLICATION OF CALL IN TEACHING SPOKEN LANGUAGE

The potential of the computer medium for teaching language speaking skills has been
realised by researchers, programmers and language teachers. In second/foreign
language classrooms, the CALL environment creates situations that stimulate
interest, allows dialogue and communication, enhances reactivity, fosters a sense of
personal worth, facilitates collaboration among students working together, permits rich
learning experiences for all students and strengthens communication skills (Borras
1993; Pennington 1995, 1996; Cameron 1999; Hardisty et al. 1989; Inoue 1999; Kohn
et al. 1997; Powell 1998). However, CALL speaking activities are still in the
developing stages compared with those in reading, writing and listening. In fact,
application of CALL in teaching and learning speaking is mainly decided by the nature
of speaking itself. According to Pennington (1995), spoken language competence
covers two aspects, ie the mechanical aspect and the meaningful aspect, which are
summarised in the following diagram:
Spoken Language Competence
Mechanical aspect
learn to discriminate and produce sounds of
a language and tie these together
prosodically in fluent strings of sounds
comprising syllables, words, phrases and
longer utterances or articulation and
decoding of individual sounds (phonemes)
Meaningful aspect
learn to build as well as to decompose
grammatically coherent utterances and to
tie these to communicative functions
according to rules of pragmatic
appropriateness in a given speech
community
Considerable numbers of CALL materials are produced on the improvement of the
fluency and accuracy of the mechanical aspect of speech, using speech recognition
and analysis technology, whereas the practice of spoken language is mainly
accounted for by some well-developed software in discourse genres and topical
areas, primarily by the creative use of computers as stimuli to generate interaction.
How computers, accompanying software packages and networks are used in the
development of language learners' speaking skills is introduced below.
Application in the Mechanical Dimension
The major application of CALL in the mechanical dimension is in pronunciation
training. New multimedia products incorporate extensive texts, graphics, animation,
audio, and digitised audio or video clips. With some software, computers can produce
relatively natural speech from individual phonemes stored as digital codes that are
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Julia Gong The employment of CALL in teaching second/foreign
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strung together by rule as the user types on the keyboard. This ‘synthesis-by-rule’
technology has the advantage that it can convert any text to speech (Pennington
1995) thus enabling learners to gain exposure to a diversity and quantity of input.
Unfortunately, computers do not always imitate a human voice very well. The
naturalness of synthesised speech varies according to the different quality of the
software or systems. This drawback is compensated by the employment of digitised
audio and video files that provide a range of natural and authentic models of
phonology for language learners. Programs using digitised speech are more
comprehensible and stable, though less flexible. Digitised videos also allow learners
to see how speakers speak, which is very helpful in preparing learners for encounters
with real native speakers, since a great deal of face-to-face communication is
nonverbal.
In relation to the articulation of sounds and words in the target language, which is
quite challenging for beginners, some types of software not only offer diagrams that
translate sound into graphic representations, but also provide video clips or animation
of the speaker's mouth in motion during the pronunciation of words or sounds, which
visualises the articulation. This is impossible without the aid of computer. With these
visual aids, the teaching of pronunciation is easier. Learners can familiarise
themselves with the target sounds and discriminate like sounds. What is more,
speech recognition technology, 'the ability of a machine to process spoken input and
respond' (Healey 1999: 127), enables CALL software to include active participation in
speech production, oral reading, and limited conversation in the range of language
activities available to students. Having imitated models several times, the learners
can actually record their own speech and compare this with the models. In addition,
their performance can actually be evaluated by the computer. By combining speech
recognition technology and speech analysis technology, which was originally used to
remediate speech problems and now is applied in second/foreign language learning
for phonetic analysis or training, a computer system can give learners real-time
feedback with clear and interpretable visual images on the learners' performance in
pronunciation. According to Aist (1999), pronunciation assistance by computer falls
into three general approaches:
Visual feedback systems provide a visual representation of a student utterance.
Acoustic template-based systems match the student’s speech against a template.
Finally, model-based systems evaluate student speech using a model of student
mispronunciations constructed from multiple native speakers or from linguistic
knowledge such as common phonetic errors (166).
All the above-mentioned technologies are used more and more in CALL software and
programs. A very good example of the application is software for computer-assisted
foreign language learning called SLIM (Multimedia Interactive Linguistic Software)
developed at the University of Venice, in which the Prosodic Module has been
created in order to deal with the problem of improving a student's performance both in
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Julia Gong The employment of CALL in teaching second/foreign
language speaking skills
the perception and production of prosodic aspects of spoken language activities,
tackling phonetic and prosodic problems at the word and segmental level, and with
prosodic aspects at phonological phrase and utterance suprasegmental level. The
program is able to detect significant deviation from a master's word/phrase/utterance
production and offers visual aids and a written diagnosis of the problem as well as
indications on how to overcome and correct the error (Delmonte 2000).
One of the greatest advantages of the application of CALL on pronunciation training is
that it offers a private environment for working on pronunciation without fear of the
number of repetitions needed for full comprehension or accuracy of production. In
language classrooms, teachers are unable to repeat a phoneme, word, or phrase as
often as the students would like. Whereas a computer program can provide endless
repetitions and therefore meet the learners’ needs. Furthermore, the learners' anxiety
and embarrassment about phonetic inaccuracies are greatly reduced. Some studies
show that many learners feel more comfortable when they practise in front of their
computers (Kataoka 2000). Learners can always adjust their own pace of learning.
According to Pennington (1995), since speech analysis technology is highly
motivating, even learners who had formerly shown no inclination to work on their
pronunciation will often willingly spend time working alone or with a trainer using this
computer-based form of input and practice. However, more work is required on the
further development of CALL materials in order to improve the mechanical aspect of
speaking competence. There is occasionally some inaccuracy in speech recognition.
There is not yet a definite quantifiable standard as to how far a learner's pronunciation
might deviate from the model and still be accepted, which thus influences the results
presented in feedback to learners. The cost of some speech analysis software is still
too high and thus beyond the means of the ordinary students or casual computer
users.
Application in the Meaningful Dimension
Due to the complexity of natural spoken language, the application of CALL in
developing speaking competence in terms of meaningful dimension is currently
realised mainly by the simulation the CALL environment creates. There are some
types of software designed to allow users to "talk" to computers. For example, one
program named Conversations offers 14 dialogues in which the learners can
participate. This program features two speakers, and the students can take the part of
either. Such software always covers practical language functions and various topics.
It also allows learners to choose a situation, study the dialogue, record themselves
and then play the recording back and compare it to the model. The software with
speech recognition and analysis functions can even give learners visual feedback.
However, computers are a long way from being able to understand and produce
natural, rapid speech on an unexpected topic. What software can do well at present is
to set up an environment that encourages learners to speak and create a micro-world
in which students can operate in the target language, both on and off computers. In
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this case, students work on computers rather than talk to them. The simulated world
can take on a life of its own, making communication within that context feel authentic.
Take a class project for example. Students can create their own simulations and roleplays.
In such tasks, students communicate with each other as they decide what the
simulations should look like as well as during the simulation itself. They may need to
write and produce an electronic play in which different characters have distinctly
different voices. Some software provides students with raw material in the form of
sets and stock of characters, and the students themselves must have a discussion,
choose the characters, decide what the characters will say and do, and type in the
dialogue. Such tasks are often carried out in pairs or small groups in which students
take up different roles such as note-taker, keyboarder, timekeeper, and group leader.
Students will thus definitely benefit from discussion, negotiation, whole-text
reconstruction, the rehearsal of polite requests, suggestions, and advice – the social
discourse needed for the group work. Teachers can help the students by introducing
and encouraging them to use the vocabulary pertinent to the simulation’s content.
Well-designed software is not the only source that is used to enhance speaking
competence in terms of meaningful dimension. With the increasing use of the Internet
throughout the world, language teachers and learners are provided with an authentic
and stimulating conversational environment. The power, flexibility and interactivity of
the Web make it an ideal medium for language instructors who are interested in
providing in-class, out-of-class or even off-campus access to speaking practice
materials. Compared to print materials, software and CD-ROMs, Web documents can
easily be kept current. Students have round-the-clock and remote access, allowing
them to work where and when they please. Since use of the Web materials is
completely individualised, students can go at their own pace, and review and repeat
as needed. In class, the Internet can be used to generate discussion. For instance,
Voice of America allows users to hear its broadcasts on the Internet using RealPlayer.
Teachers can ask students to listen to the news, tell their classmates what they hear,
and perhaps discuss some of the stories.
What is more exciting in language classrooms is the introduction of video or audio
conferencing over the network, which has been proved to be effective in developing
speaking competence. With the advent of inexpensive computer-based video
cameras, available software such as CU-SeeMe and Microsoft NetMeeting, and
easier access to the Internet and other transmission media, the prospect for oral
communication in the target language over distance has finally been realised. Users
can see each other via video and use audio to communicate. Again, some students
who might not talk much during speaking activities during the regular class are more
willing to talk in a computerised environment.
Other features of the Internet such as email, discussion forums and synchronous
discussion can also help in the development of the learners' speaking skills. Although
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they are conducted in the format of writing, the informal style of "chat" quite
resembles the oral interaction, and creates interactive communication. Pennington
(1995: 155) argues that the development of such ‘conversation-like written discourse’
might have ‘a carryover to spoken language’. In synchronous discussion, students'
comments can be read almost at real-time speed by other participants, who can then
respond. For second/foreign language students, synchronous discussion has several
advantages. Students can take time to frame their responses, allowing those who are
less fluent orally to catch up with the fast talkers. In such discussions, more students
can and most likely will contribute to the discussion whereas in an oral discussion in
class is likely to involve a smaller percentage of the group with a few individuals
dominating the session. Phinney(1995) points out that more students will participate
in an on-line classroom because several students can be writing their contributions at
the same time. Multi-user object-oriented domains (MOOs) are also a great place for
students to meet and interact with other people. It is hoped that one day real
conversations on the web will be more common and easier to carry out in language
classrooms so that the students can be exposed to an authentic conversational
environment.
Application in Other Fields
Other applications of CALL in the development of speaking skills include an electronic
dictionary, verbal command recognition, the use of speech recognition and analysis
for assessment purposes, and the integration of speaking with other language skills.
In the pronouncing dictionary, phrases and words are pronounced by native speakers,
sometimes by both an English and an American speaker, providing instant repetition
or comparison. The structure of the electronic dictionary enables the replacement of
traditional phonetic transcription with actual sound -- a decided boon for students
unfamiliar with phonetic transcriptions. Similarly, the use of spoken commands in
place of the mouse and menus has obvious application to pronunciation training: one
can create interactive CALL ESL programs based on the pronunciation problems, in
which the leaner must pronounce a command properly to get the computer to perform
the desired action.
As mentioned previously, the speech recognition and analysis technologies can
provide spontaneous feedback to learners. These technologies can also be in oral
proficiency assessment programs. Assessment of learners' speaking skills is always
done by human judges who are sometimes highly subjective. Existing work on
automatic pronunciation scoring has mainly been focused on the word and phrase
level, possibly augmented by measures of intonation, stress and rhythm. Witt and
Young (2000) describe a system focussed on measuring pronunciation quality of nonnative
speech at the phone level which aims to locate pronunciation errors, assess
how close the pronunciation is to that of a native speaker and to identify systematic
differences when compared to a pronunciation dictionary. Their research results
indicate that a computer based pronunciation scoring system is likely to be capable of
providing similar feedback to a student as a human judge with regard to which
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phonetic segments in an utterance can be accepted as correct or not. They suggest
that future work should concentrate on expanding the algorithm to inform the student
about which mistake he or she has made.
Lastly, the application of CALL in enhancement and development in second language
speaking skills can be greatly enlarged when incorporated with other skills. In fact, the
teaching and learning of speaking skills can never be isolated. Students need to listen
to a model first, then they can start practising; they need to do some reading before
they start discussion; they need to write down the dialogue they create or take notes
during the activities. The integration of all skills in tasks is actually more significant in
helping the students to become more competent users of their second /foreign
language.
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF CALL IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF
SPEAKING SKILLS
The application of CALL in the development of language learners speaking skills is
incredibly promising. Obviously, every coin has two sides. There are both advantages
and disadvantages.
Advantages
Computer environment has great advantages for the students to develop spoken
language competence which provides safe, motivating and interactive environment, a
great variety of resources, spontaneous feedback, exposure to real interaction,
addresses to different need, and allows controllability over the rate of learning.
Firstly, the computer environment is highly motivating and offers a private workspace
where learners can take risks and experiment in ways that might be psychologically
threatening in a classroom or real-life communication situation. Many learners feel
more confident when they practise speaking using computers than in a face-to-face
settings (Kataoka, 2000). They feel free to pronounce without feeling embarrassed by
their errors. In addition, provided with visual aids, students can practise more
effectively and confidently. As Pennington has argued (1996), computer training
systems for pronunciation seem to be one of the few environments where learners’
consciousness of their own spoken language errors does not interfere with their
learning.
Secondly, the computer medium offers learners information in wide forms and formats
to set up models, or support and contextualise interaction. CD-ROMs provide large
and diverse forms of information, including texts, graphics, sound files, digitised audio
and video clips, etc. that can be accessed for speaking practice. Learners can easily
turn to handy reference sources, such as texts on grammar, lexis, or the culture of the
target country. In other words, the use of computers offers more authentic examples
of second /foreign language use.
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Thirdly, the controllability of CALL materials allows learners to proceed learning at
their own pace and teachers to arrange their teaching to meet different needs. The
CALL environment can serve as a self-teaching system that adjusts the level of the
task to fit the students' ability level. Using CALL, teachers can address different
learning styles of their students through multimedia with pictures, sound, movies and
texts offering different ways to deal with the same materials to suit various learning
styles, which helps to personalise individual student's learning. In addition, in a
normal teaching situation, it is impossible for teachers or native speakers to repeat a
phrase without variation in its utterance or repeat as much as the students want them
to. The same sentence in CALL materials can be repeated as often as is necessary
for comprehension or perfect imitation, or can be broken up for analysis. Therefore
the controllability of the computer environment makes teaching and learning more
flexible and personalised.
Fourthly, many CALL materials can offer spontaneous feedback that can be used
both for assessment or self-assessment purposes. In many cases, this kind of
feedback can make the students' performance visualised by the use of visual images,
eg. simplified waveform. The evaluation and feedback provided by the CALL
environment, unlike traditional assessment, can be passed on to the learners without
the threat of face-to-face confrontation or embarrassment, which enables the learners
to take more risks in their practice (Borras 1993).
Lastly, networked computers enhance interaction between users and the target
language content, by putting learners in touch with other learners or native speakers
of the language, and a multitude of other resources free from the restriction of time
and distance. When students communicate on the Internet with other users, though in
many cases, in 'conversation-like written discourse' (Pennington 1996: 155) rather
than in real spoken form, they need to produce a considerable amount of output to
have smooth communication which can be full of negotiation of meaning and thus
facilitates learning.
Disadvantages
The application of CALL in developing second language speaking skills is
disadvantaged in several ways. Firstly, at present computers are unable to produce or
understand natural language or have real verbal interaction with the users. What the
CALL environment can do is provide a stimulus to generate interaction. Secondly, the
quality and cost of available software differs greatly. For instance, some speech
synthesising software might produce a voice with a mechanical quality that can be
difficult for learners to understand. Some software is still too expensive for ordinary
learners or casual users. What is more, the potential of CALL materials may fail to be
realised in specific cases due to various types of misapplication or improper use
(Pennington 1995). Correct and effective use of resources remains a problem.
Another problem that always arises in relation to the design and development of
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CALL materials is the demand of computer memory. Speech analysis programs with
visual graphics and the storage of the highest quality digitised speeches or video clips
all take a great deal of computer memory, thus restricting the design of CALL
materials. Last, but not least, teachers and learners should keep very firmly in mind
that most exposure to the CALL environment is indeed ‘virtual’ and not real (Jones
1996). There is no substitute for actual human-to-human contact in learning a
language. A computer program, no matter how sophisticated, is not the same as
actual, direct exposure to another culture.
TRENDS IN THE FUTURE
CALL is a promising medium for the teaching and learning of language speaking
skills. Hopefully, in the near future, the CALL environment can process and conduct
natural interaction. A well-designed scoring system can assess students' performance
with high validity and reliability, and provide high quality, consistent, specific and
constructive feedback in audio or visual format. Advances in storage technology will
soon solve the memory problem. It is thus believed that the great potential and
capability of the application of CALL environment in both teaching and learning is not
measurable.
CONCLUSION
The CALL environment is highly motivating and less threatening psychologically,
which has greatly changed the teaching and learning of second/foreign language
speaking skills. However, compared with how computers are used to enhance the
learners’ writing, reading and listening skills, the application associated with the
improvement of the learners’ speaking skills is still rather weak. In a CALL survey
(Levy 1997), under software categories, the rate for speaking is much lower than
those for reading, writing and reading.
Language is basically speech. In all first language acquisition, the understanding and
production of speech precedes that of written texts. People talk far more than they
write and the importance of mastery of the spoken language as the primary objective
among learners is confirmed time and again by surveys (Coleman 1991). Therefore,
the use of the specific potential of computers in developing speaking skills and
effective teaching with the existing computer-based environment require further study
for CALL researchers, program designers and language teachers.
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